Here's a draft of the numbers ABCs PEP. The most up to date version will live in the darcs repository at http://jeffrey.yasskin.info/darcs/PEPs/pep-3141.txt (unless the number changes) for now. Naming a PEP about numbers 3.141 seems cute, but of course, I don't get to pick the number. :) This is my first PEP, so apologies for any obvious mistakes. I'd particularly like the numpy people's input on whether I've gotten floating-point support right. Thanks, Jeffrey Yasskin ------------------------------- PEP: 3141 Title: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers (and other algebraic entities) Version: $Revision: 54928 $ Last-Modified: $Date: 2007-04-23 16:37:29 -0700 (Mon, 23 Apr 2007) $ Author: Jeffrey Yasskin Status: Draft Type: Standards Track Content-Type: text/x-rst Created: 23-Apr-2007 Post-History: Not yet posted Abstract ======== This proposal defines a hierarchy of Abstract Base Classes (ABCs) [#pep3119] to represent numbers and other algebraic entities similar to numbers. It proposes: * A hierarchy of algebraic concepts, including monoids, groups, rings, and fields with successively more operators and constraints on their operators. This will be added as a new library module named "algebra". * A hierarchy of specifically numeric types, which can be converted to and from the native Python types. This will be added as a new library module named "numbers". Rationale ========= Functions that take numbers as arguments should be able to determine the properties of those numbers, and if and when overloading based on types is added to the language, should be overloadable based on the types of the arguments. This PEP defines some abstract base classes that are useful in numerical calculations. A function can check that variable is an instance of one of these classes and then rely on the properties specified for them. Of course, the language cannot check these properties, so where I say something is "guaranteed", I really just mean that it's one of those properties a user should be able to rely on. This PEP tries to find a balance between providing fine-grained distinctions and specifying types that few people will ever use. Specification ============= Although this PEP uses terminology from PEP3119, the hierarchy is meaningful for any systematic method of defining sets of classes. **Todo:** link to the Interfaces PEP when it's ready. I'm also using the extra notation from [#pep3107] (annotations) to specify some types. Object oriented systems have a general problem in constraining functions that take two arguments. To take addition as an example, ``int(3) + int(4)`` is defined, and ``vector(1,2,3) + vector(3,4,5)`` is defined, but ``int(3) + vector(3,4,5)`` doesn't make much sense. So ``a + b`` is not guaranteed to be defined for any two instances of ``AdditiveGroup``, but it is guaranteed to be defined when ``type(a) == type(b)``. On the other hand, ``+`` does make sense for any sorts of numbers, so the ``Complex`` ABC refines the properties for plus so that ``a + b`` is defined whenever ``isinstance(a,Complex) and isinstance(b,Complex)``, even if ``type(a) != type(b)``. Monoids (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoid) consist of a set with an associative operation, and an identity element under that operation. **Open issue**: Is a @classmethod the best way to define constants that depend only on the type?:: class MonoidUnderPlus(Abstract): """+ is associative but not necessarily commutative and has an identity given by plus_identity(). Subclasses follow the laws: a + (b + c) === (a + b) + c a.plus_identity() + a === a === a + a.plus_identity() Sequences are monoids under plus (in Python) but are not AdditiveGroups. """ @abstractmethod def __add__(self, other): raise NotImplementedError @classmethod @abstractmethod def plus_identity(cls): raise NotImplementedError I skip ordinary non-commutative groups here because I don't have any common examples of groups that use ``+`` as their operator but aren't commutative. If we find some, the class can be added later.:: class AdditiveGroup(MonoidUnderPlus): """Defines a commutative group whose operator is +, and whose inverses are produced by -x. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abelian_group. Where a, b, and c are instances of the same subclass of AdditiveGroup, the operations should follow these laws, where 'zero' is a.__class__.zero(). a + b === b + a (a + b) + c === a + (b + c) zero + a === a a + (-a) === zero a - b === a + -b Some abstract subclasses, such as Complex, may extend the definition of + to heterogenous subclasses, but AdditiveGroup only guarantees it's defined on arguments of exactly the same types. Vectors are AdditiveGroups but are not Rings. """ @abstractmethod def __add__(self, other): """Associative commutative operation, whose inverse is negation.""" raise NotImplementedError **Open issue:** Do we want to give people a choice of which of the following to define, or should we pick one arbitrarily?:: def __neg__(self): """Must define this or __sub__().""" return self.zero() - self def __sub__(self, other): """Must define this or __neg__().""" return self + -other @classmethod @abstractmethod def zero(cls): """A better name for +'s identity as we move into more mathematical domains.""" raise NotImplementedError @classmethod def plus_identity(cls): return cls.zero() Including Semiring (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiring) would help a little with defining a type for the natural numbers. That can be split out once someone needs it (see ``IntegralDomain`` for how).:: class Ring(AdditiveGroup): """A mathematical ring over the operations + and *. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_%28mathematics%29. In addition to the requirements of the AdditiveGroup superclass, a Ring has an associative but not necessarily commutative multiplication operation with identity (one) that distributes over addition. A Ring can be constructed from any integer 'i' by adding 'one' to itself 'i' times. When R is a subclass of Ring, the additive identity is R(0), and the multiplicative identity is R(1). Matrices are Rings but not Commutative Rings or Division Rings. The quaternions are a Division Ring but not a Field. The integers are a Commutative Ring but not a Field. """ @abstractmethod def __init__(self, i:int): """An instance of a Ring may be constructed from an integer. This may be a lossy conversion, as in the case of the integers modulo N.""" pass @abstractmethod def __mul__(self, other): """Satisfies: a * (b * c) === (a * b) * c one * a === a a * one === a a * (b + c) === a * b + a * c where one == a.__class__(1) """ raise NotImplementedError @classmethod def zero(cls): return cls(0) @classmethod def one(cls): return cls(1) I'm skipping both CommutativeRing and DivisionRing here. class Field(Ring): """The class Field adds to Ring the requirement that * be a commutative group operation except that zero does not have an inverse. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_%28mathematics%29. Practically, that means we can define division on a Field. The additional laws are: a * b === b * a a / a === a.__class_(1) # when a != a.__class__(0) Division lets us construct a Field from any Python float, although the conversion is likely to be lossy. Some Fields include the real numbers, rationals, and integers mod a prime. Python's ``float`` resembles a Field closely. """ def __init__(self, f:float): """A Field should be constructible from any rational number, which includes Python floats.""" pass @abstractmethod def __div__(self, divisor): raise NotImplementedError Division is somewhat complicated in Python. You have both __floordiv__ and __div__, and ints produce floats when they're divided. For the purposes of this hierarchy, ``__floordiv__(a, b)`` is defined by ``floor(__div__(a, b))``, and, since int is not a subclass of Field, it's allowed to do whatever it wants with __div__. There are four more reasonable classes that I'm skipping here in the interest of keeping the initial library simple. They are: ``Algebraic`` Rational powers of its elements are defined (and maybe a few other operations) (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_number). Complex numbers are the most well-known algebraic set. Real numbers are _not_ algebraic, but Python does define these operations on floats, which makes defining this class somewhat difficult. ``Trancendental`` The elementary functions (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_function) are defined. These are basically arbitrary powers, trig functions, and logs, the contents of ``cmath``. The following two classes can be reasonably combined with ``Integral`` for now. ``IntegralDomain`` Defines __divmod__. (http://darcs.haskell.org/numericprelude/docs/html/Algebra-IntegralDomain.htm...) ``PrincipalIdealDomain`` Defines gcd and lcm. (http://darcs.haskell.org/numericprelude/docs/html/Algebra-PrincipalIdealDoma...) If someone needs to split them later, they can use code like:: import numbers class IntegralDomain(Ring): ... numbers.Integral.__bases__ = (IntegralDomain,) + numbers.Integral.__bases__ Finally, we get to numbers. This is where we switch from the "algebra" module to the "numbers" module.:: class Complex(Ring, Hashable): """The ``Complex`` ABC indicates that the value lies somewhere on the complex plane, not that it in fact has a complex component: ``int`` is a subclass of ``Complex``. Because these actually represent complex numbers, they can be converted to the ``complex`` type. ``Complex`` finally gets around to requiring its subtypes to be immutable so they can be hashed in a standard way. ``Complex`` also requires its operations to accept heterogenous arguments. Subclasses should override the operators to be more accurate when they can, but should fall back on the default definitions to handle arguments of different (Complex) types. **Open issue:** __abs__ doesn't fit here because it doesn't exist for the Gaussian integers (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian_integer). In fact, it only exists for algebraic complex numbers and real numbers. We could define it in both places, or leave it out of the ``Complex`` classes entirely and let it be a custom extention of the ``complex`` type. The Gaussian integers are ``Complex`` but not a ``Field``. """ @abstractmethod def __complex__(self): """Any Complex can be converted to a native complex object.""" raise NotImplementedError def __hash__(self): return hash(complex(self)) @abstractmethod def real(self) => Real: raise NotImplementedError @abstractmethod def imag(self) => Real: raise NotImplementedError @abstractmethod def __add__(self, other): """The other Ring operations should be implemented similarly.""" if isinstance(other, Complex): return complex(self) + complex(other) else: return NotImplemented ``FractionalComplex(Complex, Field)`` might fit here, except that it wouldn't give us any new operations. class Real(Complex, TotallyOrdered): """Numbers along the real line. Some subclasses of this class may contain NaNs that are not ordered with the rest of the instances of that type. Oh well. **Open issue:** what problems will that cause? Is it worth it in order to get a straightforward type hierarchy? """ @abstractmethod def __float__(self): raise NotImplementedError def __complex__(self): return complex(float(self)) def real(self) => self.__class__: return self def imag(self) => self.__class__: return self.__class__(0) def __abs__(self) => self.__class__: if self < 0: return -self else: return self class FractionalReal(Real, Field): """Rationals and floats. This class provides concrete definitions of the other four methods from properfraction and allows you to convert fractional reals to integers in a disciplined way. """ @abstractmethod def properfraction(self) => (int, self.__class__): """Returns a pair (n,f) such that self == n+f, and: * n is an integral number with the same sign as self; and * f is a fraction with the same type and sign as self, and with absolute value less than 1. """ raise NotImplementedError def floor(self) => int: n, r = self.properfraction() if r < 0 then n - 1 else n def ceiling(self) => int: ... def __trunc__(self) => int: ... def round(self) => int: ... **Open issue:** What's the best name for this class? RealIntegral? Integer?:: class Integral(Real): """Integers!""" @abstractmethod def __int__(self): raise NotImplementedError def __float__(self): return float(int(self)) @abstractmethod def __or__(self, other): raise NotImplementedError @abstractmethod def __xor__(self, other): raise NotImplementedError @abstractmethod def __and__(self, other): raise NotImplementedError @abstractmethod def __lshift__(self, other): raise NotImplementedError @abstractmethod def __rshift__(self, other): raise NotImplementedError @abstractmethod def __invert__(self): raise NotImplementedError Floating point values may not exactly obey several of the properties you would expect from their superclasses. For example, it is possible for ``(large_val + -large_val) + 3 == 3``, but ``large_val + (-large_val + 3) == 0``. On the values most functions deal with this isn't a problem, but it is something to be aware of. Types like this inherit from ``FloatingReal`` so that functions that care can know to use a numerically stable algorithm on them. **Open issue:** Is this the proper way to handle floating types?:: class FloatingReal: """A "floating" number is one that is represented as ``mantissa * radix**exponent`` where mantissa, radix, and exponent are all integers. Subclasses of FloatingReal don't follow all the rules you'd expect numbers to follow. If you really care about the answer, you have to use numerically stable algorithms, whatever those are. **Open issue:** What other operations would be useful here? These include floats and Decimals. """ @classmethod @abstractmethod def radix(cls) => int: raise NotImplementedError @classmethod @abstractmethod def digits(cls) => int: """The number of significant digits of base cls.radix().""" raise NotImplementedError @classmethod @abstractmethod def exponentRange(cls) => (int, int): """A pair of the (lowest,highest) values possible in the exponent.""" raise NotImplementedError @abstractmethod def decode(self) => (int, int): """Returns a pair (mantissa, exponent) such that mantissa*self.radix()**exponent == self.""" raise NotImplementedError Inspiration =========== http://hackage.haskell.org/trac/haskell-prime/wiki/StandardClasses http://repetae.net/john/recent/out/classalias.html References ========== .. [#pep3119] Introducing Abstract Base Classes (http://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3119/) .. [#pep3107] Function Annotations (http://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-3107/) .. [3] Possible Python 3K Class Tree?, wiki page created by Bill Janssen (http://wiki.python.org/moin/AbstractBaseClasses) .. [#numericprelude] NumericPrelude: An experimental alternative hierarchy of numeric type classes (http://darcs.haskell.org/numericprelude/docs/html/index.html) Acknowledgements ---------------- Thanks to Neil Norwitz for helping me through the PEP process. The Haskell Numeric Prelude [#numericprelude] nicely condensed a lot of experience with the Haskell numeric hierarchy into a form that was relatively easily adaptable to Python. Copyright ========= This document has been placed in the public domain.  .. Local Variables: mode: indented-text indent-tabs-mode: nil sentence-end-double-space: t fill-column: 70 coding: utf-8 End: